38(4): 604615. ), Intonation in African Tone Languages, 167194. The click type refers to the location of the front closure and the manner in which it is released, which may be abrupt or affricated, central or lateral. (eds. 8: 525562. Western Bantu tradition and use the results to reflect on the nature and the characteristics of the phenomenon one calls tradition. The 17th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (ICPhS XVII), Hong Kong, August 1721, 2011, 14581461. (ed. South African Journal of African Languages They form the largest branch of the Southern Bantoid languages.. The Xhosa S41 voiced clicks are breathy or slack voiced (Jessen & Roux 2002) and may even be devoiced (Maphalala et al. This difference seems to be related to the different origin of long vowels; Yao P21 maintains Proto-Bantu vowel length distinctions and adds to them. due to male/female differences in formant range. Expansion of the closed cavity causes the pressure in the air inside the space to be reduced well below that of the air outside the mouth. ), Proceedings of the 6th World Congress of African Linguistics, Cologne, 1721 August 2009, 533543. & J. C. ), Bantu Historical Linguistics: Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives, 235295. K. B. A discussion of Bantu phonetics would not be complete without reference to some of the studies of the major prosodic characteristics of the languages. Paper presented at West African Phonology Group, London, 28th April, 2011. Swahili, which is spoken by five million people as a mother tongue and some 30 million as a second language, is a Bantu lingua franca important in both commerce and literature. Journal of African Languages and Linguistics Figure 3.2 Blench, R. A closure in the vocal tract is formed by the back of the tongue contacting the roof of the mouth in the velar or uvular area and a second closure is formed in front of the location of this closure by the tip or blade of the tongue or the lips, as shown at timestep 1. Duke, D. Herman, R. & Sands The patterning of tones in many Bantu languages resembles that of pitch-accent systems. L. J. Holtzhausen (2008) Click Cavity Formation and Dissolution in IsiXhosa: Viewing Clicks with High-Speed Ultrasound. L. M. Paper presented at the 8th World Congress of African Linguistics, August These vowels bring to mind the super-high or super-close vowels /i u/ used by Meeussen (1967, 1969) and Guthrie (1967, 1970a, 1970b, 1971) and notated as / / by Meinhof (1899), in addition to normal high /i u/. & Patin, C. S. J. London: Gregg International. O. Cologne: Rdiger Kppe. Phonemic Inventories and Cultural and Linguistic Information Across Maho, J. It can be predicted from tongue body position: front vowels have wider pharynx than back vowels, lower vowels have narrower pharynx than higher vowels. 26(2): 235254. (2010) More on Post-Nasal Devoicing: The Case of Shekgalagari. A particularly rare phenomenon reported in Hendo C82 involves the class 5 prefix, which is actually the reflex of the Proto-Bantu augment *di- followed by the noun prefix *i- (cf. (2014) Clicks, Concurrency and Khoisan. 45(1): 6169. Since a rounded lip posture can also be seen in non-whistled fricatives, such as in the sequence [usu], the labial constriction alone cannot account for the whistle-like concentration of the frication noise, but it must be due to a particular linguopalatal configuration that is yet undescribed. shows a typical example of /o/ in the word /ko/ to go; /o/ has a low F2 (below 1000 Hz). Table 3.1 London; New York: Routledge. Each point represents the mean of between six and 21 tokens of phonetically long vowels in penultimate position in words spoken by a male speaker. The Bantu languages are spoken in a very large area, including most of Africa from southern Cameroon eastward to Kenya and southward to the southernmost tip of the continent. (2016) Sentence Intonation in Tswana (Sotho-Tswana group). Faytak, M. Figure 3.35 Note that the back of the mouth is found on the left side of an ultrasound image, but on the right side of an MRI image. Paris: Centre de Recherches, dEchanges et de Documentation Universitaire. Next, the closure at the front and/or side of the mouth is released (timestep 4) and the abrupt equalisation of air pressures inside and outside the mouth results in a sharp acoustic transient. 13: 3972. Yehia, H. C. Zhu M. ed. , Bailey M. I. The velar release of a Xhosa S41 dental click is shown in Figure 3.23, which has a waveform and spectrogram of the word caca // be clear. The first unaspirated dental click has a velar burst 17 ms after the anterior click burst. (1976) Question Formation in Some Bantu Languages. 2016). Figure 3.3 Connell, B. Note that the tongue tip is on the right and the tongue root on the left, the reverse of the images in Figure 3.6. An acoustic plot of these vowels is given in In Kalanga S16, on the other hand, the vowels are crowded into the upper part of the vowel space, with the front pair in particular being very close together. van Schaik. & Miller, A. Hubbard (1994, 1995) also compared the durations of vowels in three further languages with different patterns. Fridjhon African Studies , Zerbian, S. A. J. Schadeberg, T. C. Voiced stops tend to be made with a downward movement of the larynx, presumably to help sustain voicing (Monaka 2001). The possible variations are thus very numerous, and many different categories of individual clicks are found when all the languages which use them are considered (Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996). The segments labelled as implosives are sometimes described as if a glottal constriction is characteristic of their production. Maddieson, I. Downing, L. J. vowels may thus be misinterpreted as being lower than the [+ATR] mid vowels, but the high F1 values may be instead attributed to a retracted tongue root position. Cologne: Rdiger Kppe. It is clear that Greenberg is dealing with an entirely different kind of time and relationship than that relevant for Common Bantu. H. Bantu peoples - Wikipedia Voicing is continuous through the closure; upper and lower lines have been constructed on the figure linking respectively the positive and negative peaks in the waveform in order to dramatise the growing amplitude of the voicing during the closure. (1996) The Phonology and Morphology of Kimatuumbi. , & E. Harnsberger (eds. (1999) The Historical Interpretation of Vowel Harmony in Bantu. Naidoo, S. This term was originally applied to consonants which have a particularly salient lowering effect on the pitch of the voice in their neighbourhood (Lanham 1958). The white horizontal lines indicate the width of the maximum cons-triction. Letele, G. L. Krakow 2009, cited in Blench 2015). The seal around the inside of the teeth is made by 40 ms later, and as the contact area of the back of the tongue enlarges, the front edge of the velar contact is now visible as a line of contacted electrodes at the bottom of the arc. Zvegintsev, V. Guthrie, M. (2011) Corrected High Frame Rate Anchored Ultrasound with Software Alignment. Clicks on the fringes of the Kalahari Basin Area. & & Impressionistically, there appear to be no differences in vowel quality between pairs that differ in length in the two languages. Dorsal closures for all three click types in Thomas-Vilakatis data are held for about 175 milliseconds, but the front closures show some significant timing differences. & Pholia 3. Source: Recording and images made available by Michael Proctor. In Mpiemo A86c, implosives have a slight rise in F0 before the onset of a following vowel while voiced plosives have a sharp dip in F0 (Nagano-Madsen & Thornell 2012). They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. Jessen, M. PDF Koen Bostoen, Mark van de Velde To cite this version Anecdotally, it seems that clicks in other Bantu languages may also vary in amplitude, depending on the individual speaker, stylistic or sociphonetic variables, and prosodic environment. Roux, J. C. Elderkin Certain more complex patterns, such as those noted by Hombert (1990) in Fang A75, and by Roux (1995) in Xhosa S41, may require a more elaborate model. The interaction of final lowering and downstep in Pare G22 is detailed in Herman (1996). Meeussen, A. E. (2013), Proctor et al. Nagano-Madsen, Y. Greenberg, J. H. While the deviations from the "pure" type are recognized, this typological method is the chief one utilized in untangling the complex African linguistic situation. The distribution seen in Xhosa S41 or Swahili G42 is similar to that most typically found cross-linguistically in five-vowel systems transcribed /i e a o u/, such as Spanish, Hadza or Hawaiian. (1996) Final Lowering in Kipare. Smouse The posture of the vowel following the click is seen in timestep 5. , Trenton; Asmara: Africa World Press. v broadly demonstrates the need for micro-linguistic and language-specific considerations in the The equalisation of internal and external pressure at release occurs much more quickly in post-alveolar clicks than for dental and lateral clicks. Sands Positional restrictions are another aspect of prosody in Bantu languages. Chewa N31b and Tumbuka N21, for instance, do not have focus prosody (Downing 2016). The fragment marked B has voiceless oral airflow, with resonances similar to those of the following /a/ vowel. Journal of African Languages and Linguistics 32(2): 113121. Miller, A. The first frame, numbered 0, is close to the time that velar closure is first made, as detected from the accompanying acoustic record. Hamlaoui An acoustic artefact of recording in the cylindrical metallic MRI scanner bore is a series of echoes spaced at 53 ms intervals. L. In Zulu S42, the phonetic effects of depressor consonants on pitch differ from pitch lowering effects caused by implosive consonants (Chen & Downing 2011). Wissing, D. Huffman, M. K. Both falling and rising intonation patterns are found in question prosodies. & Bantu orthographies usually do not indicate these alternations, unless subsequent developments have created a contrast between, say, /b/ and //, or /b/ and //. In The Scottish Consortium for ICPhS 2015 (ed. Another special laryngeal action occurs in the depressor consonants which are characteristic of certain Bantu languages of the Eastern and Southern regions. Brasington Bantu is a general term for over 400 different ethnic groups in Africa, from Cameroon to South Africa, united by a common language family (the Bantu languages) and in many cases common customs.. Figure 3.1 Thomas, K. & Nyamwezi F22 vowel formant means according to measurements by the first author. Figure 3.26 & A. (eds. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins. The ATR/RTR contrast in Nande JD42 is also suggested by the harmonic behaviour and acoustic characteristics of vowels. A. Miller, A. Pretorius In these cases there is a substantial fall in F0 from the onset to the middle of the nasal, and pitch begins to rise before the consonant is released; the pitch peak on the vowel is 40Hz (left panel) or 50Hz (right panel) higher than the lowest pitch in the nasal. Blench, R. The relationship between the seven vowels of Vove B305 is notably different, as demonstrated in Mabuta Bonny Sands, Print publication date: February 2019 The typical pattern for dental/alveolar contrasts is that the dentals are laminal while the alveolars are apical. Clicks have also been reported to occur in Chopi S61 (Bailey 1995) and in the Mzimba variety of Tumbuka N21 (Moyo 1995). (2010) Accent in African Languages. . (2006) On the Status of Voiced Stops in Tswana: Against *ND. Zare: revue congolaise Ishihara & S. Figure 3.18 Xhosa S41 vowel formant means (Roux & Holtzhausen 1989). Ms. Jos: Rycroft, D. K. Paper presented at the 46th Colloquium on African Languages and Linguistics, Leiden. C. Both languages have contrasts of vowel quantity and compensatory lengthening of vowels before prenasalised stops, but there are interesting differences between the two. (2009) On Pitch Lowering Not Linked to Voicing: Nguni and Shona Group Depressors. The three front vowels and the three back vowels can therefore be distinguished one from another solely by height. & 16: 385400. . Haacke, W. H. G. (eds. There are several ways of indicating the same click following IPA principles, e.g., /, , / are equivalent ways of representing a voiced (post-)alveolar click. a thorough treatment of both the syntactic and semantic characteristics of the external and internal arguments. 2011, Boyer & Zsiga 2013). London: University College, University of London, PhD dissertation. 38(1): 825. We propose a political theory, based on consensual . Resources listed below are intended to contribute to foundational awareness of potential cultural and linguistic influences. For example, in Chewa N31b, as is common cross-linguistically, the High pitch peak is realised at the end of the syllable to which it is associated (Kim 1998, Myers 1999a). Brenzinger, M. 54: 471486. Volume 4: A Catalogue of Common Bantu with Commentary. For an ordinary pulmonic stop, peak pressure behind the closure ranges between about 5 and 20 hPa, depending on the loudness of the voice. Doke, C. M. Sands, B. In Fwe K402, they were borrowed from Khoe and Ju languages (Bostoen & Sands 2012, Gunnink et al. Byrd Phonetica Maphalala, Z. LINGUISTICS: The Languages of Africa. Joseph H. Greenberg - AnthroSource (2014) Chain Shifts, Strident Vowels, and Expanded Vowel Spaces. The current variation between clicks and velars in Imusho Fwe may eventually lead to the loss of clicks in the variety altogether, as clicks are replaced by velars. In Stevick, E. W. Journal of Phonetics (1989) The Parentage and Development of Lozi. & Dogil, G. (1987) Production and Perception of Sibilant Fricatives: Shona Data. Berkeley: University of California, PhD dissertation. (2016) Stem-Initial Accent and C-Emphasis Prosody in North-Western Bantu. Contour tones may be restricted to heavy syllables. ), Tabasaranskie Etjudy, 616. Rialland & 19(1): 119. (2017) Chiikuhane (Subiya) Manual with Orthography. Narayanan Lingua A. Klner Afrikawissenschaftlichen Nachwuchstagung (KANT I), 119. K. 30: 152. PDF Bantu Phonetics text It has since sometimes come to be used for any consonant which has any local lowering effect on pitch or, more accurately, on the fundamental frequency of vocal fold vibration, abbreviated F0, such as an ordinary voiced plosive. Most words in a Bantu sentence are marked by a prefix indicating the category to which the noun used as the subject of the sentence belongs, and, if there is an object, the words in that noun phrase and the verb are also marked by a prefix determined by the noun class of the object. Nurse, D. van der Hulst, H. G. , (2010) Phonetically Grounded Phonology and Sound Change: The Case of Tswana Labial Plosives. 31: 111137. (1996) Dictionrio Changana-Portugus. Goedemans , , (2015) The Bantoid Languages. In Oxford Handbooks Online. In Mwiini G412, however, long vowels may surface on the penult or antepenult and only occur word-initially in loanwords (Kisseberth & Abasheikh 2004: xvii). & 35(4): 330341. New York: Springer. Most strikingly, the high vowels /i u/ are placed lower than the mid vowels /e o/. Maddieson, I. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. Yeyi R41 contrasts clicks with a velar fricated and ejective velar fricated release (/ Fricated vowels occur in Kom and Oku, two Grassfields Bantu languages of the central Ring group (Faytak 2014, Faytak & Merrill 2014), as well as in several Bantoid languages of the northern Cameroon Grassfields (Faytak 2015). Figure 3.13 Coetzee, A. W. Proctor, M. Persson, J. This is not surprising, as retracting the tongue root is more likely to pull the tongue back and down when the tongue body position is front. South-West and South-East Bantu languages with clicks. (eds. (2009) NUGL Online: The Online Version of the New Updated Guthrie List, a Referential Classification of the Bantu Languages (4 Juni 2009) (Available online at. Each point represents the mean of six measurements, three of isolated vowel tokens, plus three tokens in final vowels in /alV/ nonsense words. & 30(1): 110. Stankowski Somerville: Cascadilla Proceedings Project. Shosted Kalanga S16 vowel formant means according to measurements by done the first author. While any vowel quality can appear in the first root syllable, affixes draw from a more restricted vowel inventory. Figure 3.29 Post-alveolar clicks have the greatest rarefaction, lateral clicks the least, perhaps because the contra-lateral bracing of the tongue in the lateral clicks may constrain the amount of tongue-center lowering that is possible. . This would therefore be an important counter-example to the more common pattern found in labial-velar doubly articulated segments in other languages in which the labial closure is formed very slightly later (1015 ms) than the velar one. ), Proceedings of the Conference on Language Documentation and Linguistic Theory 2, 313321. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Phonetica . (1896) tudes sur les langues du Haut-Zambze. South African Journal of African Languages . Schadeberg, T. C. Belo Horizonte: CEFALA. There are different types of downstep attested in some Bantu languages. ), Namibian Languages. Bennett, W. G. (2016) Tone and Vowel Length in Fwe (Bantu, K402). Shah Particularly striking in this connection is the velar ejective lateral affricate [k] of Zulu S42 (cf. The question of the role of ATR interacts with the question of the nature of the high vowels, as the *super-high/*high contrast might have been an expression of an ATR contrast or transformed into one in daughter languages. Myers, S. Figure 3.34 N. Haacke, W. H. G. Articulatory positions of six of the vowels of Fang A75 (variety of Bitam). and In Downing, L. J. & (2007) Tongue Body Constriction Differences in Click Types. Fehn Wesi Stanford: Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI), Stanford University. Source: Recording by Pither Medjo Mv made available by D. Demolin; measurements by the first author. (1995) Issues in the Phonology and Orthography of Chopi (ciCopi S 61). ), Intonation in African Tone Languages, 321364. (2009a) Differences in Airstream and Posterior Place of Articulation Among Nuu Clicks. Language Sciences Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. Journal of Phonetics Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. & In Lindemann Brighton: Causal Productions. . Downing, L. J. Dordrecht: Foris Publications. Journal of Phonetics Berkeley: University of California Press. (1985) On aspiration in Swahili: Hypotheses, Field Observations and an Instrumental Analysis. Sock, R. She also uses electropalatography (EPG) to show the susceptibility of stops to coarticulation varies not only by place of articulation, but also according to voice category; aspirated stops are the least susceptible to coarticulation and voiced stops are the most (Monaka 2001). Source: Recording made available by Daniel Duke and Marieke Martin. ), Intonation in African Tone Languages, 393434. Clark Spectrogram of Rwanda JD61 ugutwi [ugutkwi] ear; same speaker as Figure 3.14. Bailey, R. (2009b) Rarefaction Gestures and Coarticulation in Mangetti Dune !Xung clicks. Only a small part of this difference can be accounted for by the difference in peak pressre between the click types. 2(1): 5172. Thanassoula Figure 3.30 For individuals learning English as a second language, it is common for the phonemic system of their first language to influence the production of sounds in English. That Zulu dental clicks are produced with a controlled fricated release is also clear from the way the front release initially involves formation of a narrow channel, clearly visible in frame 150. The relative timing and durations of velar and front closures deduced from acoustic and aerodynamic data are graphed in For example, the word meaning armpit, transcribed by Mathangwane as [apka], could receive three pronunciations [hakwa] with no labial closure, [hapxa] with a labial stop followed by a fairly long velar fricative, or [hapka] with a sequence of stops with clearly separate releases, as illustrated in Barnard Tokyo: ILCAA. Idiatov Iskarous (1989) Relatrio do I Seminrio sobre a Padronizao da Ortografia de Lnguas Moambicanas. Boyer ), Prosodic Categories: Production, Perception and Comprehension, 243265. , Dickens, P. Figure 3.1 PDF CHAPTER 1 1. Introduction 1.1 The Xitsonga language , Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 28(3): 176194. There is a raising process in Xhosa S41, which results in higher variants of /e o/ when /i u/ occur in the next syllable. Figure 3.27 46(2): 255274. Bokamba, E. G. Lengthened vowels are much closer in duration to underlying long vowels in Ganda JE15 than they are in Sukuma F21. 83: 918. 2831, University of California, Berkeley. Areas north of Swati S43 and east of Ndebele S44 with grey patterns show the S10, S50 and S61 zones where clicks have been sporadically attested. Namibian Yeyi is described as having 19 click consonants (Gowlett 1997: 257), while Botswana Yeyi speakers vary, having as few as 12 or as many as 22 distinct click consonants (Fulop et al. & & Figure 3.17 a given language is to be accepted as Bantu. (2011) Perceived Vowel Duration in Civili: Minimal Pairs and the Effect of Post-Vocalic Voicing. in the word /ko/ avarice has a higher F2 (above 1000 Hz), and the higher formants are much more prominent than those of /o/. Plauch Bolzano: Bozen-Bolzano University Press. Areas in black on the map represent the geographical distribution of languages with large click inventories, and areas in grey represent smaller click inventories. Kim, S.-A. & The Bantu Languages, 2019. This coding system has become the standard for identifying Bantu languages; it was the only practical way to distinguish many ambiguously named languages before the introduction of ISO 639-3 coding, and it continues to be widely used. , Yaound: SIL Cameroon. Consonant gemination has developed through internal processes in languages such as Ganda JE15 (Clements 1986) and by contact with Cushitic languages in Ilwana E701 (Nurse 1994). , (1997) A Dialectometrical Analysis of the Main Kavango Languages: Kwangali, Gciriku and Mbukushu. T. & Myers, S. PDF World Geography - Unit 3 - Cultural Geography (1994) Nasales et nasalisation en ggwl, langue bantu du Congo. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. Doke, C. M. These, we argue, include complex lexicalizations consisting of a. Boyd, V. L. In Pretoria: Via Afrika. & A. Figure 3.4 Hume Cologne: Rdiger Kppe. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. The ejection is generally weak compared to that found in languages of the Afro-Asiatic family, except for Ilwana E701 where the ejectives are in borrowed Cushitic vocabulary, and the ejective lateral affricate of Zulu S42 mentioned earlier. This differs from Kwasio A81 pharyngealisation which likely results from the reduction of a consonant. The sounds of the Bantu languages Ian Maddieson Department of Linguistics, University of California, Berkeley 1. Gunnink Pretoria: University of Pretoria, PhD dissertation. Philippson, G. Click loss is an on-going process in Chopi (Bailey 1995) and in Imusho Fwe (Gunnink forthcoming). A. Some speakers of Southern Ndebele S407 have a reduced click inventory (Schulz & Laine 2016).